Several studies have evaluated the role of collision characteristics, age, gender, psychological factors, and initial pain intensity with regards to whiplash injuries. According the available literature, initial pain intensity seems to be the most consistent predictor of late whiplash syndrome.

E. Williamson, et al. A systematic literature review of psychological factors and the development of late whiplash syndrome. PAIN. 2008.Vol. 135. Pp. 20-30.

Late whiplash syndrome, LWS, is the presence of pain, restriction of motion or other symptoms six months or more after a whiplash injury. Restrictions may be in areas such as the ability to return to normal activities such as driving, work, or recreation.

E. Williamson, et al. A systematic literature review of psychological factors and the development of late whiplash syndrome. PAIN. 2008.Vol. 135. Pp. 20-30.

There are two recognized causes. Trauma such as whiplash, and degeneration.

D. Kirpalani, R. Mitra. Cervical facet joint dysfunction: A review. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. April 2008. Volume 89. Pp. 770-774.

A recent literature review found that no studies specifically addressed the benefit of conservative care such as physical therapy, spinal manipulation, use of heat or cold, massage, or medication in the treatment of cervical facet joint dysfunction. There are limited studies and conflicting evidence regarding the effectiveness of intra-articular facet joint injections or medial branch blocks.

The authors reviewed 45 articles and one textbook while conducting a literature review of cervical facet joint dysfunction. Cervical facet joints are joints that are formed by processes that extend from the bottom of the vertebral bone above with processes that extend from the upper portion of the vertebral bone below. They are surrounded by a fibrous capsule, are lined by synovial membranes, and contain articular cartilage and menisci.

There are likely many factors that might contribute to the development of late whiplash syndrome, LWS. Age, gender, initial pain intensity, collision characteristics, and psychological factors have all been studied. The authors chose to evaluate available literature on the potential role of psychological aspects in the development of LWS.

Nonoperative treatment with immobilization can be done using a halo-thoracic vest. The vest is kept on for up to four months. The surgeon relies on X-rays to show if healing is taking place before transitioning the patient to a stiff cervical collar for another four weeks.

This type of management is possible when the fracture is nondisplaced (hasn't moved) and the patient is without symptoms. The very young and very old are treated with conservative care most often.

The upper cervical spine starts with two bones labeled C1 and C2. C2 has a peg-like bony structure called the odontoid process. It sticks up like a tooth through the round ring that makes up C1.

A fracture of the odontoid process can be very serious. If it is unstable, the bones slip. Pressure on the spinal cord can cause permanent neurologic damage. Paralysis is even possible. For this reason, fusion of the spine at the C1-2 level is usually advised.

A sudden or traumatic blow to the base of the skull or upper neck can result in a shear force that fractures the odontoid process. The odontoid process is a peg-like structure of bone that's part of the C2 vertebra. It sticks up inside the C1 vertebra, which is shaped like an open ring.

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a form of anxiety. It was first called shell shock but was later referred to as combat fatigue. Now we know it as PTSD.